Mastering Chemistry Help

Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary amine Using Hinsberg  reagent Three classes of amines are distinguished by Hinsberg reagent test . The Hinsberg reagent is benzene sulphonyl chloride (C 6 H 5 SO 2 Cl). 1. Reaction of Hinsberg reagent with Primary amine A primary amine forms a precipitate of N-alkyl benzene sulphonamide with Hinsberg reagent. This precipitate is soluble in alkali. RNH 2 (primary amine)  +  C 6 H 5 SO 2 Cl ( Hinsberg reagent ) ------------>  R-NH-SO 2 -C 6 H 5   ------(NaOH)---> R-N - Na + -SO 2 C 6 H 5 (soluble) 2. Reaction of Hinsberg reagent with secondary amine   Secondary amine reacts with Hinsberg reagent to form a precipitate N,N-dialkyl benzene sulphonamide. But this precipitate is insoluble in alkali. R 2 NH (secondary amine)  +  C 6 H 5 SO 2 Cl ( Hinsberg reagent ) ------------> R 2 NSO 2 C 6 H 5 (precipitate)  -----(NaOH)---> insoluble (no reaction) 2. Reac...

GK Chemistry Questions and answer about Elements Some frequently asked Chemistry gk questions about elements Chemistry GK >> 1. Hydrogen 1. Which is the most abundant element in the Universe ? Answer: Hydrogen 2. Which is the atom without Neutron ? Answer: Hydrogen 3. Who discovered Hydrogen ? Answer: Henry Cavendish 4. Who named Hydrogen ? Answer: Lavoisier 5. Which isotope of Hydrogen has Radio Active nature ? Answer: Tritium 6. Which gas is used to make Vanaspathi ? Answer: Hydrogen 7. Which is the lightest element ? Answer: Hydrogen 8. Which is the element common to all Acid ? Answer: Hydrogen Chemistry GK >> 2. Helium  1. Which is the second most abundant element in the universe ? Answer: Helium 2. Which gas is used to for filling air ships and observation balloons ? Answer: Helium 3. Who discovered Helium ? Answer: William Ramsay 4. Which is the lightest Noble gas ? Answer:  Helium ...

Industrial Application of Adsorption Process 1. Activated charcoal is used to remove bad odours inside refrigerator and to deodourise tap water in water purifier. It is also used in gas masks to adsorb poisonous gases in the atmosphere. 2. In sugar industry animal charcoal is used to decolourise raw sugar solution obtained from sugar cane. 3. In chromatography, suitable adsorbents are used. They selectively adsorb certain substance from solution. Adsorption chromatography is used for detection and separation of mixtures. 4. In dehumidifier, silica gel is used as adsorbent. 5. Activated charcoal is  used to maintain vacuum in laboratory vessels such as Dewar flask. 6. Heterogeneous catalysis  mostly operate through adsorption of reactant molecules. 7. Softening of water using ion exchange resin is based on selective adsorption of ions which cause hardness. 8. In mordant dyeing, mordants adsorb colour. 9. Ferric hydroxide can adsorb arsenic ions and hence i...

Adsorption Isobar : Effect of temperature Most of the adsorptions are exothermic reactions, Hence adsorption generally depend on temperature. Exothermic reactions are mostly spontaneous at low temperature. Hence the extent of adsorption decreases with increase of temperature at constant pressure. A plot of extent of adsorption verses temperature at constant pressure is known as adsorption Isobar.

Factors affecting adsorption: Pressure of Gas Adsorption and desorption are reversible process and take place simultaneously leading to equilibrium state. Adsorbent + gas  <========> Adsorbent gas In the forward direction, during adsorption, volume decreases since gases are adsorbed to the surface. Hence applying Le-Chatelier principle, we can predict effect of pressure. At high pressure, the system has a tendency to decrease volume and shifts towards forward direction, ie , more adsorption take place. Now we can conclude that extent of adsorption (x/m) increases with increase in pressure. Where x= number of the moles of gas adsorbed and m = mass of adsorbent, at equilibrium. Variation of  x/m with pressure can be experimentally studied and can be plotted as a graph at constant temperature. Such graphs obtained by plotting (x/m) against (p) at constant temperature are called, adsorption isotherm . To see all Factors affecting adsorption of gases on...

Specific area of adsorbent affects adsorption of gases on solids The surface area of an adsorbent available for adsorption is known as specific area of adsorbent. Depending on the nature of surface, impurity at the surface etc, specific area of adsorbent changes. Rough surface can adsorb more, due to greater available surface area. Similarly solids can adsorb more when powdered. When powdered, surface area increases. Hence porous and finely divide forms of adsorbent have greater adsorption power. Activation of adsorbent We can increase the activity of an adsorbent using different methods. Cleaning surface, making rough surface, powdering etc are some of these method. To see all Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids visit http://entrancechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/11/factors-affecting-adsorption-of-gases.html

Important Factors affecting adsorption of gases are 1. Nature of gas. 2. Nature of adsorbent. 3. Specific area of adsorbent. 4. Activation of the adsorbent. 5. Pressure of the gas. 6. Temperature 1. Nature of gas Adsorption can be either physisorption or chemisorption . Chemical adsorption is highly specific, hence only a particular adsorbent can adsorb a gas. For example, Nitrogen is adsorbed by Iron. Adsorption of hydrogen by nickel or platinum. But physisorption is not specific. In such cases it is observed that easily liquefiable gases are more adsorbed than permanent gases like He, N 2 , O 2 , H 2 etc. It is due to the reason that HCl, SO 2 , CH 4 , NH 3 , SO 3 etc are more adsorbed. In case of easily liquefiable gases, van der Waals  force or molecular forces are more predominant, and hence physisorption becomes more significant. 2. Nature of adsorbent The extent of adsorption depends on nature of the adsorbent. Charcoal and silica gel are good adsorben...

Physisorption and Chemisorption definition In adsorbed state the adsorbate is held on the surface of adsorbent by attractive forces (bond). Depending on the nature of attractive forces, adsorption can be of two types - physical adsorption (Physisorption) and chemical adsorption (Chemisorption) . In chemisorption there is a strong chemical bond. During adsorption, a new bond is formed between adsorbent and adsorbate. Therefore adsorptions are generally exothermic (▵H = -ve). But entropy and free energy decreases during adsorption. Enthalpy change during adsorption process are called enthalpy of adsorption . It is defined as the heat evolved at constant pressure, when one mole of an adsorbate is adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent. For physical adsorption and chemical adsorption , its values ranges in the order of -20KJ/mol and 200kjmol -1 . Difference between physisorption and chemisorption are given below. Comparison Between Physisorption and Chemisorption ...

Stereo chemistry Importance  Stereochemistry is an important aspect of carbon compounds. It is prevalent in the whole universe. The human body is structurally chiral with the heart lying to the left and the liver to the right in the body. Many plants show chirality which help them to wind around supporting structures. Most of the molecules found in animals and plants are chiral and usually only one form of chiral molecules occur in a species. All the naturally occurring amino acids have L configuration. The synthesized D-proteins made from D aminoacids are some what resistant to break down by protein digesting enzymes.All naturally occurring sugars are of D-configuration. The enzyme, yeast can specifically ferment D-glucose and not its L-form. Stereo chemistry also plays an important role in deciding the physiological properties of compounds. (-) Nicotine is much more toxic than (+) Nicotine. (+) Adrenaline is very active in constriction of blood vessels than (-) Adrenali...

Separation of Dextro and Laevo components The synthesis of optically active compounds in the laboratory usually results in racemic mixture. The d and l forms can be separated from the racemic mixture. The separation of a racemic mixture in to dextro and laevo components is termed resolution . Due to identical physical properties of optical isomers their separation cannot be effected by simple physical methods. Usual methods which have been used for resolving racemic compounds are Mechanical Separation, Biochemical separation and by means of salt formation. Methods of separation of a racemic mixture in to dextro and laevo components 1. Mechanical Separation When the two varieties of isomers form well defined crystals they can be separated by hand picking. The crystals of Sodium ammonium racemate can be separated by this method. 2. Biochemical Separation In this method certain micro organism such as mould, bacteria or fungi when allowed grow in a solution of racemic mixt...

Optical Isomers Definition Optical isomerism arises due to chirality or asymmetry of the molecule. Optical isomers resemble one another in chemical properties and most of their physical properties but differ in their behavior towards polarized light. The isomer, which rotate the plane of polarized light clockwise is called dextro rotatory isomer (d - isomer) and the one which rotate the plane of polarized light anticlockwise is called laevo rotatory isomer (l - Isomer). The necessary condition for a molecule to be optically active is asymmetry or chirality of the molecule. Chirality is not just the presence of the asymmetric carbon atom but asymmetry of the molecule as a whole. Most of the chiral molecule contains at least one asymmetric carbon atom (Chiral Carbon atom). Still, there are some organic molecules which exhibit optical isomerism with out having chiral carbon (example: Substituted biphenyls). Some of the organic molecules are optically inactive even though they cont...

Optical Isomers of Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH) Two chiral carbon atoms are present in tartaric acid . The difference in spatial arrangements of various groups in tartaric acid results in d-tartaric acid , l-tartaric acid and an active form known as meso form . In addition to these, racemic modification, another inactive form also exist. Dextro tartaric acid rotates the plane of polarization of light to right. The rotation due to upper half is strengthened by the rotation of lower half. Laevo tartaric acid is a mirror image of d-form, which rotate the palne of polarization to left. Racemic tartaric acid is an equimolar mixture of d and l -isomers. It is optically inactive due to external compensation, it can be resolved into d and l forms. Meso tartaric acid is an inactive variety and the rotation of upper half is compensated by the rotation due to lower half. It cannot be resolved into active constituents. It is therefore inactive due to internal compensation. Mes...

Optical Isomers of lactic acid In lactic acid CH 3 - CHOH - COOH , second carbon is chiral . There are two optically active isomers of Lactic acid : d-lactic acid and l-lactic acid . In addition to these optically active varieties there is an optically inactive form which results when dextro and laevo (levo) varieties are present in equal quantities. It is called racemic mixture or (+-) lactic acid . The racemic mixture is 50:50 mixture of d and l -isomers and hence have zero optical rotation as the rotation due to one enantiomer cancels the rotation due to the other. That is racemic mixture is optically inactive due to external compensation. The process of conversion of an enantiomer in to a racemic mixture is known as racemisation . Racemisation can be brought about by the action of heat, light and chemical reagent. Dextro rotatory lactic acid may be obtained from meat extract and is known as sarcolactic acid . With muscular activity glycogen present in ...

Production of Sulphuric Acid (H 2 SO 4 ) Sulphuric acid is an important chemical used in industry. It is also known as 'King of chemicals'. Sulfuric acid is manufactured by contact process . Contact process Involves the following steps. Preparation of Sulphurdioxide (SO 2 ) SO 2 is prepared by burning sulphur or sulphide ore in excess of air. It is done in a sulphur burner. S + O 2   ----------->  So 2 So 2 produced is purified by passing it through 1. Dust precipitator (which removes dust from gas) 2. Water scrubber (which removes soluble impurities) 3. Drying tower (which removes moisture) 4. Arsenic purifier (which removes arsenic impurities) Oxidation of SO 2 to SO 3 Purified SO 2 gas coming out from arsenic purifier is preheated and admitted to catalytic converter filled with catalyst V 2 O 5 . In catalytic chamber the following reversible reaction take place and is known as Contact process . 2SO 2 + O 2   <========>...

Sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) and Sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) Sulphur forms a number of halides in which the oxidation state of sulphur are +1, +2, +4 and +6. The well known halides are S 2 X 2 (X=F,Cl,Br or I) = oxidation state of S is +1 SX 2 (X=F or Cl) = oxidation state of S is +2 Sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) The oxidation state of Sulphur (s) in Sulphur hexaflouride ( SF 6 ) is +6. Sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) is prepared by direct combination of Sulphur (S) and Flourine (F). 1/8 S 8   +  3F 2   ----------->  SF 6 Sulphur hexaflouride ( SF 6 ) has octahedral shape. Sulphur atom is Sp 3 d 2 hybridised. Sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) Sulfur tetrafluoride (SF4) is prepared by fluorination of SCl 2 with NaF 3SCl 2   +  4 NaF  ------------>  S 2 Cl 2   +  SF 4   +  4 NaCl Sulphur atom is  Sp 3 d hybridized in SF 4 and possess triagonal bipyramidal geometry with one corner is occupied by ...

Aluminum is the most abundant metal of earth's crust (8.3%) and exist as oxide and fluoride ores. The metal is extracted from bauxite ore (Al 2 O 3 .2H 2 O). The extraction process involve three stages or steps step 1 Purification of bauxite step 2 Electrolytic reduction of Al 2 O 3 step 3 Electrolytic purification of aluminium 1. Purification of bauxite The bauxite ore contain iron oxide and silicon dioxide as impurities. It is purified by leaching method using concentrated sodium hydroxide solution in which bauxite dissolve forming sodium meta aluminate. On agitating this solution with freshly precipitated Al(OH) 3 for several hours Al(OH) 3 is precipitated. NaAlO 2   +  2H 2 O  ------------>  NaOH  +  Al(OH) 3  The precipitate is filtered and dried and NaOH is concentrated and used again for leaching . The aluminium hydroxide precipitate is calcined at 1500 o C to obtain pure alumina. 2. Electrolytic reduction of pure alumina ...

Molecular Orbital Theory To describe the covalent bond formation and nature of electron sharing, two theories have been proposed: Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT). In Valence Bond Theory , only the half filled orbitals of valence shell take part in bond formation and the remaining orbitals retain their identity. But Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) suggests the combination of all atomic orbitals having comparable energy and proper symmetry. Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) was developed by F. Hund and R.S Mulliken in 1932. Main postulates of this theory are : 1. Atomic orbitals of comparable energy and proper symmetry combine together to form molecular orbitals. 2. The movement of electrons in a molecular orbital is influenced by all the nuclei of combining atoms. (Molecular orbital is poly centric in nature) 3. The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals. When two atomic orbitals (AO's) combine t...

Definition of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is not possible to determine precisely both the position and momentum (or velocity) of a moving microscopic particle, simultaneously with accuracy. Mathematical Expression of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle ▵x .▵p => h / 4π Where  ▵x is uncertainty with regard to the position and ▵p is uncertainty with regard to the momentum of the particle. If ▵x is very small ▵p would be large , that is , uncertainty with regard to momentum will be large. On the other side if we attempt to find out the momentum exactly the uncertainty with regard to position will be large. Explanation of   Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle To determine the position of a small body like electron, it has to be illuminated with electromagnetic radiation. Low energy radiations like ordinary light waves cannot be used to illuminate a small body like electron, since the size of the ...

De-Broglie Hypothesis In 1924, de-Broglie proposed that matter has a dual character , as wave and as particle . In Bohr theory, electron is treated as particle. But according to De-Broglie, electron has a dual dual character; both as a material particle and as a wave. He derived an expression for calculating the wave length 'λ' of a particle of mass 'm'  moving with velocity 'v'. According to this, wave length = λ =  h / mv  , where 'h' is Planck's constant This is equation is known as De-Broglie's equation and it is an expression for wave - matter dualism . The waves associated with particles in motion are called matter waves or De-Broglie waves . They differ from electromagnetic radiations. They have lower velocities, and no electrical and magnetical fields associated with them. Derivation of  De-Broglie's equation The de-Broglie's equation can be derived by using the mass energy relationship suggest...

Properties of Potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ) 1. Potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ): Action of Heat Potassium permangante on strong heating gives potassium manganate, manganese dioxide and oxygen. 2 KMnO 4 ----------> K 2 MnO 4 + MnO 2 + O 2 2. Oxidising properties of Potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ) Potassium permanganate is a powerful oxidizing agent in alkaline or acidic solution. The relevant half reactions are: 1. Alkaline medium (pH > 7) MnO 4 - + 2H 2 O + 3 e - ----------> MnO 2 + 4OH - 2. Acidic medium (pH <7) MnO 4 - + 8H + + 5e - ----------> Mn 2+ + 4H 2 O A few important oxidizing reactions of Potassium permanganate ( KMnO 4 ) 1. In acidic medium potassium permanganate oxidizes green ferrous salts to yellow ferric salts MnO 4 - + 8H + + 5Fe 2+ ----------> 5Fe 3+ + Mn 2+ + 4H 2 O 2. in acidic medium potassium permanganate oxidizes oxalic acid or oxalate salts to CO 2 and water 2 MnO 4 - + 16H + + 5 C 2 O ...

Chemistry in Dyes Natural dyes are extracted from natural sources. They are used for making coloured fabrics. Probably, the earliest known natural dyes were indigo (a blue dye) and alizarin (a red dye). These were obtained from plants. Definition of Dyes A dye is a coloured substance that can be applied in solution or dispersion to a substrate, giving it a coloured appearance. Usually the substrate is a textile fiber , but it can also be paper, leather, hair, fur, plastic material, wax, a cosmetic base or a foodstuff. Now a days synthetic dyes are used for dyeing purpose. Classification of Dyes Dyes are classified either according to their constitution or method of application. 1. Classification of dyes based on Constitution This classification is based on the distinguishing structural units present in the dye. 1. Azo 2. Nitro 3. Phthalein 4. Triphenyl Methane 5. Indigoid 6. Anthraquinone 2. Classification of dyes based on Application Depending upon the process of application the dyes ...

Vat Dyes Vat dyes are insoluble in water and cannot be used directly for dyeing. But on reduction to a leuco form (colour less), they become soluble in an alkali and acquire affinity for cellulose fibres. A solution of the leuco form can be applied for dyeing or printing. On oxidation the original insoluble dye is formed within th structure of the fibre. Indigo and indigosol O are dyes which belong to this class. Mordant Dyes Mordant dyes are primarily used for dyeing of wool in the presence of metal ions. The metal ion binds to the fabric and the dye acting as ligand co-ordinates to the metal ion. The same dye in the presence of different metal ions imparts different colours to the fabrics. The colours imparted by Alizarin in presence of different ions are given below Ions and colours Al3+ = Rose red Ba 2+ = Blue Cr 3- = Brownish red Mg 2+ = Violet Sr 2+ = Red For details about Dyes visit http://entrancechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/08/chemicals-in-every-day-life...

Fibre Reactive Dyes Fibre Reactive Dyes attach themselves to the fibre by an irreversible chemical reaction. The dyeing is fast and the colour is retained for a long time. The bonding is through the substitution of leaving group of dye via the hydroxy or amino group of fibres like cotton, wool or silk Insoluble Azo Dyes Insoluble Azo Dyes are obtained by coupling phenols, naphthols, arlamines, amino naphthols adsorbed on the surface of a fabric with a diazonium salt. Over 60% of the dyes used are Azo dyes . Cellulose, silk, polyester, nylon, polypropylene, polyurethanes, poly acrylonitriles and leather can be dyed by using these dyes. Azo dyes also find use in cosmetics, drugs, biological stains and as indicators in chemical analysis. Use of such dyes for colouring of food stuffs is not permitted . To know classification of dyes visit Chemicals in every day life: Dyes

Direct Dyes Direct dyes are water soluble dyes. As the name suggests, these dyes are directly applied to the fabric from aqueous solution and are practically suitable for fabrics like cotton, rayon, wool, silk and nylon which from hydrogen bonds with water. Martius yellow and congo red are important example of this class of dyes. Disperse Dyes Disperse Dyes in the form of minute particles of a suspension diffuse into the fabric, get fixed and impart colour. Such dyes are used for dyeing synthetic fibres like polyesters, nylon and polyacrylo nitrile . Many anthraquinone disperse dyes are suitable for application to synthetic polyamide fibres. T o know more about Dyes visit Chemicals in every day life: Dyes

Acid Dyes Acid dyes are usually salts of sulphonic acid and can be applied to wool, silk, polyurethane fibres and nylons. The affinity of acid dyes for nylon is higher than that for other types because polycaprolactum fibers fibers contain a higher proportion of free basic amino groups. Acid dyes do not have affinity for cotton. Orange-1 is a versatile acid dye. Basic Dyes Basic dyes contain amino group which in acid form water soluble salts. These dyes get attached to the anionic sites present on the fabrics. Such dyes are used to dye reinforced nylons and polyesters. Aniline yellow and malachite green belong to this class of dyes. To Know more about dyes visit Chemicals in every day life: Dyes

Perfumes Perfumes are the materials which give fragrance. A good perfume should have three essential ingredients. They are 1. Vehicle or Solvent 2. Fixative 3. Odorous substance 1. Vehicle or Solvent The vehicle or Solvent is used to keep the odour producing substances in solution. Ethanol and water mixture is most commonly used in perfumery. 2. Fixative Fixative regulate the evaporation of various odoriferous components of perfumes. Sandal wood oil, Benzoin, glyceryl diacetate and esters of cinnamyl alcohols are used as fixative. 3. Odorous Substance The function of odorous substance is to provide pleasant fragrance to perfume. Odorous substances may be natural or synthetic. Terpenoids like linalool is a natural odoriferous substance. Anisaldehyde (p-methoxy benzaldehyde) is an example for synthetic odoriferous substance. Related posts Chemicals in Food

Pottassium Permanganate ( KMnO 4 ) is prepared from Pyrolusite ore ( MnO 2 ). The finely powdered Pyrolusite ore ( MnO 2 ) is fused with an alkali metal hydroxide like KOH in the presence of air or an oxidizing agent like KNO 3 to give the dark green potassium Manganate ( K 2 MnO 4 ). Potassium manganate disproportionate in a neutral or acidic solution to give potassium permanganate . 2 MnO 2 + 4 KOH + O 2 ----------> 2K 2 MnO 4 + 2H 2 O 3 MnO 4 2- + 4H + ------------> 2MnO 4 - + MnO 2 + 2H 2 O Commercially potassium permanganate is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of Pyrolusite ore ( MnO 2 ) followed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (4) ion . 2 MnO 2 + 4KOH + O 2 -----------> 2 K 2 MnO 4 + 2H 2 O MnO 4 2- ------( electrolytic oxidation )----> MnO 4 - + e - Properties Potassium permanganate forms dark purple (almost black) crystals , which are iso structural with those of KCLO 4 . It has weak temperature dependent...

Preparation of Potassium dichromate ( K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) Potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) is prepared from chromite ore FeCr 2 O 4 . The chromite ore is fused with sodium or potassium carbonate in free access of air. 4FeCr 2 O 4 + 8Na 2 CO 3 + 7O 2 -------> 8Na 2 CrO 4 + 2FeO 3 + 8CO 2 The yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified with sulfuric acid to give a solution from which orange sodium dichromate , Na2Cr2O7 2H2O can be crystallized. 2Na 2 CrO 4 + 2H + ---------> Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 2Na + + H 2 O Sodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate. Hence sodium dichromate when fused with KCl forms orange crystals of potassium dichromate. Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 2KCl --------> K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 2NaCl The chromates and dichromates can be inter convertible. 2CrO 4 2- + 2H 2+ ---------> Cr 2 O 7 2- + H 2 O Cr 2 O 7 2- + 2OH- ---------> 2CrO 4 2- + H 2 O The dichromate ion and chromate ion exist in equilibrium with each other at a pH of ...

Concentration Beneficiation by Forth flotation This method is used for the concentration of sulphide ores which are lighter than the impurities. The powdered ore is added to water containing pine oil (frothing agent) and sodium ethyl xanthate (collecting agent). The mixture is strongly agitated by passing compressed air. The sulphide particles stick to the oil droplets forming a forth which rises to the surface. The heavier gangue particles settle to the bottom of the vessel. The forth is skimmed off and heated to separate the oil and the sulphide. Related post Leaching: metallurgy

Phosphorus forms a number of oxoacids. They are hypophosphorous acid (H3PO2), Phosphorous acid (H3PO3), Hypophosphoric acid (H3PO4), pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7) and meta phosphoric acid (HPO2)n. 1. Hypo phosphorous acid (H3PO2) or phosphinic acid It is preapred by the oxidation of phosphine by iodine in the presence of calculated amount of water. It is a monobasic acid. PH3 + 2I2 + 2H2O -----------> H3PO2 + 4 HI 2. Phosphorous acid (H3PO3) or phosphonic acid It is prepared by hydrolysis of phosphorous trioxide (P4O6). Phosphorous acid is dibasic. P4O6 + 6H2O ----------> 4H3PO3 3. Hypophosphoric acid (H4P2O6) It is prepared by controlled oxidation of red phosphorous with sodium chlorite solution, when disodium salt of hypophosphoric acid is formed which then passing through cation exchanger yield hypophosphoric acid. Hypophosphoric acid is tetrabasic. 2P + 2NaClO2 + 2H2O ---------> Na2H2P2O6 + 2HCl Na2H2P2O6 + 2H -----resin-----> H4P2O6 + 2Na - resin 4. Orthophosphoric a...

Definition of Micelles (Associated colloids) There are some substances which at low concentrations behave as normal strong electrolytes but at higher concentrations exhibit colloidal behavior due to the formation of aggregated particles. These associated particles are called micelles or associated colloids . The formation of micelles take place only above a particular temperature called Kraft temperature (T K ) and above a particular concentration called critical micelle concentration (CMC). Example: Detergents and soaps. Soap is sodium salt of higher fatty acid like C 17 H 35 COONa (sodium stearate). In aqueous solution soap ionizes as The RCOO - ions (C 17 H 35 COO - ) and Na + ions. C 17 H 35 COONa ---------> C 17 H 35 COO - + Na + The RCOO - ions however consist of two parts. That is, long hydrocarbon chain R(-C 17 H 35 ) also called non-polar tail which is hydrophobic and the polar group COO - called polar-ionic head which is hydrophilic. In concentrated solution,...

Depending upon the nature of interaction between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium, colloids are classified in to the lyophilic colloids (solvent attracting) and lyophobic colloids (solvent repelling). If water is the dispersion medium, it is called as hydrophilic and hydrophobic colloid respectively. Lyophilic colloids The meaning of the word 'lyophilic' is 'liquid-loving' or 'solvent attracting'. That means, these are colloids in which there is strong interaction between the two phases. Lyophilic colloids are those dispersions in which the dispersed phase exhibits a definite affinity for the medium and as a results extensive solvation of the colloidal particles takes place. They are directly formed by mixing the two phases.Eg :- Gum, soap, starch, gelatin, rubber etc. These sols are also called reversible sols. Because, if the dispersion medium is separated from the dispersed phase, the sol can be reconstituted by simply mixing with the dispersion...

Corrosion Of Iron Corrosion is the process in which a metal is destructed as a result of its reaction with environment. Corrosion of iron is known as rusting. Rusting is the hydrated ferric oxide. Other examples for corrosion are tarnishing of silver and development of green coating on copper and bronze. In corrosion metals undergo anodic oxidation to metal oxides. Electrochemical theory of rusting The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process involving the following steps. The moister containing CO2 acts as electrolyte. H 2 O + CO 2 ------> H 2 CO 3 H 2 CO 3 ------> 2H+ + CO 3 2- The iron is oxidized by the removal of electrons and acts as the anode. Fe ------> Fe 2+ + 2electron The H+ ions from the electrolyte accept electrons from the adjacent areas on metal surface and function as cathode. 4H + + 4electron ------> 2H 2 The atmospheric oxygen moves hydrogen as water. 2H 2 + O 2 ------> 2H 2 O Adding the above two equations, 4H+ +O 2 + 4electron ------> ...

Preparation of phenol from benzene derivatives Phenol was first isolated in the early nineteenth century from coal tar. Nowadays, phenol is commercially produced synthetically. In the laboratory, phenols may be prepared from benzene derivatives by any of the following methods. 1. From sodium benzene sulphonate Benezene sulphonic acid when treated with NaOH gives its sodium salt. Sodium benzene sulphonate. This when fused with NaOH at temperature between 570-620 K, gives sodium phenoxide, which on hydrolysis with dilute mineral acid gives phenol. 2. From Benzene diazonium chloride Benzene diazonium chloride is formed by treating aniline with nitrous acid (NANO2 + HCl) at 273-283 K temperature. On warming an aqueous solution of benzene diazonium chloride, it is hydrolysed to form phenol. 3. From Chlorobenzene (Dow’s process) Chlorobenzene on heating with 10% aqueous solution of NaOH at about 623K under 200 atmospheric pressure in the presence of copper salt catalyst, sodium phenoxide is ...

Preparation of Phenol From Coal Tar Phenol is commercially prepared from the middle oil fraction (443-503K) of coal tar distillate in which it occurs with cresols and naphthalene . First naphthalene is removed by chilling the fraction. The remaining oil is now treated with H 2 SO 4 to remove basic impurities and phenol is then extracted with dilute caustic soda . The aqueous layer is separated and phenol is precipitated with H 2 SO 4 or CO 2 . It is finally purified by distillation. Preparation of Phenol From Cumene Nowadays, phenol is manufactured from the hydrocarbon cumene. Cumene (isopropyl benzene) is first prepared from benzene and propene by Friedel-Crafts reaction in presence of phosphoric acid of aluminum oxide. Cumene is oxidized in presence of air to cumene hydroperoxide, which is then converted to phenol and acetone by treating it with dilute acid. Acetone, a byproduct of this reaction, is also obtained in large quantity by this method. Phenol has a melting point of 3...

Chemical properties of Ethers (With HI) On heating with concentrated Hydrogen iodide (HI) the C-O bond in ethers breaks forming alcohol and alkyl iodide. For example, C 2 H 5 -O-C 2 H 5 + HI ------------> C 2 H 5 - I + C 2 H 5 OH On boiling with excess of concentrated Hydrogen iodide (HI), Alkyl iodide is formed. C 2 H 5 -O-C 2 H 5 + 2HI ------------> 2C 2 H 5 I + H 2 O In the case of mixed ethers with two different alkyl groups, the site of cleavage and hence the alcohol and alkyl iodide that form depend on the nature of the alkyl groups. When one group is methyl and the other is primary or secondary alkyl group, it is the lower alkyl group that forms alkyl iodide due to steric factors. For Example, When one group is methyl and the other alkyl group is a tertiary group, the halide formed is a tertiary group, the halide formed is a tertiary halide. For Example, It is because the attack by I- takes place at that carbon of alkyl group, which has a greater electron pus...

Preparation of Ethanol (Drinking Alcohol) Ethanol is the most important member of the alcohol series. Ethanol is prepared industrially by the fermentation of sugars in molasses, sugarcane or fruits such as grapes or starch obtained from various grains. Fermentation is the oldest method of making ethanol from sugars. It is the slow decomposition of complex organic compounds into simple compounds by the action of biological catalysts called enzymes. Manufacture of Ethanol from Molasses Molasses is the mother liquor left behind after the crystallization of sugar from sugarcane juice. It contains about 40% non-crystallizable sugar. Mollasses is first diluted to about 10% concentration of sugar. Then, calculated amount of yeast is added and kept at an optimum temperature of about 305K. Yeast provides the enzymes invertase and Zymase which can cause fermentation. The enzyme invertase catalyses the hydrolysis of sugar into glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are decomposed into ethano...

Industrial Preparation of Methanol Methanol , CH 3 OH, which is also known as ' Wood alcohol ' or ' Wood spirit '. Methanol is produced by the destructive distillation of wood. Today, most of the methanol is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at high pressure and temperature and in presence of Cu-ZnO-Cr 2 O 3 catalyst. Co + 2H 2 ----(Cu-ZnO-Cr 2 O 3 , 200-300 atm, 573-673 K)------> CH 3 OH Methanol is a colourless liquid with boiling point 337 K. It is highly poisonous in nature. Injection of even small quantities of methanol can cause blindness and in large quantities, even death. Uses of Methanol Methanol is used as a solvent on paints, varnishes etc. and methanol is chiefly for the preparation of formaldehyde. Methanol is also used for denaturing ethanol. For more visit Preparation of alcohol

Reaction of ethers with atmospheric Oxygen Ethers form peroxides by the action of atmospheric oxygen or ozonised oxygen due to co-ordination of one lone pair of the ethereal oxygen with another oxygen atom For example, C 2 H 5 O 2 H 5 + O ------------> (C 2 H 5 ) 2 O (diethyl ether Peroxide)---> O These peroxides are unstable compounds and decomposes violently on heating. Hence, ethers should never be evaporated to dryness. it is essential to remove the peroxides by washing before distilling the ether. This can be done by washing the ether with a solution of ferrous sulphate. For Chemical properties of ethers visit http://entrancechemistry.blogspot.com/2012/07/chemical-properties-of-ether.html

Chemical Properties of Ethers (with H 2 SO 4 ) On heating with dilute sulfuric acid under pressure, ethers are hydrolysed to alcohols. For example, C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5 + H 2 O ----( dil.H2so4,high pressure )-----> 2C 2 H 5 OH Mixed ethers under similar conditions give a mixture of alcohols. CH 3 OC 2 H 5 + H 2 O ------( dil.H2so4,high pressure )------>C 2 H 5 OH + CH 3 OH But if concentrated sulfuric acid is used, then the products are alcohol and alkyl hydrogen sulphate. C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5 (Diethyl ether) -----( heat, conc. H2SO4 )-----> C 2 H 5 OH (ethanol)+ C 2 H 5 OSO 2 OH (ethyl hydrogen sulphate) Ethers containing secondary and tertiary alkyl groups form alkenes with conc. sulphuric acid. For example For more about chemical reaction of ether visit http://entrancechemistry.blogspot.in/2012/07/chemical-properties-of-ether.html